Urgent surgical decompression of the blocked system, not just antibiotics. For an uncomplicated stone, a trial of tamsulosin may help it pass.

Leakage because the person cannot reach or use the toilet in time. Mobility limitations or difficulty recognising the need to urinate, such as with dementia, can contribute.

No. Kidney cancer often causes no symptoms early on. Assessment may involve urine tests, blood tests and imaging; symptoms alone cannot reliably exclude it.

Calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate and uric acid are recognised types. Struvite and cystine stones are less common.

Collect before antibiotics when possible. Do not postpone urgent antibiotics in a seriously unwell child just to obtain urine. Review culture results to confirm the diagnosis and adjust treatment.

An intermittent catheter is inserted to drain the bladder, then removed. An indwelling catheter stays in place. Some people learn to perform intermittent catheterisation themselves.

A soft, non-tender, fluctuant swelling that transilluminates brightly suggests hydrocele. Most resolve by age 2 years; consider outpatient surgical referral if it persists beyond that age.

No. Most do not need ultrasound after a first UTI. Atypical infection needs acute imaging; recurrent infections warrant further assessment and ultrasound. RCH also specifies additional indications in young infants.

Yes. Chronic retention means the bladder empties incompletely, not necessarily that urination stops. Weak flow, straining, incomplete-emptying sensation, dribbling and incontinence can occur.

No. These drugs can worsen bleeding or reveal an existing lesion. Their use does not remove the need to investigate an underlying cause.

Yes. A small but important group presents with urinary symptoms alone, especially bladder carcinoma in situ. Frequency, urgency and dysuria should not automatically be attributed to infection.

Cystitis: 3–5 days. Pyelonephritis: 7–10 days. Select antibiotics using local guidance, susceptibility patterns and the child's previous microbiology.

Restrict fluids starting 1 hour before the dose and continuing for at least 8 hours afterwards. Do not use it if the child cannot follow this restriction. The intranasal route is not recommended because hyponatraemia risk is higher.

A bladder diary, pelvic floor exercises, tailored fluid and toileting habits, and tracking urine volumes and leakage. A continence nurse or pelvic health physiotherapist can individualise the plan to reduce urgency.

Haematuria, repeated urinary infections, bladder stones, retention or impaired renal function. Also refer if symptoms progress despite medication or treatment is not tolerated.

A sudden compelling need to urinate, with leakage linked to urgency. Frequency and night-time urination may accompany it. This differs from leakage triggered by coughing or exertion.

No. RACGP does not recommend routinely adding digital rectal examination to PSA testing in asymptomatic men seeking early detection. This recommendation does not address examination of symptomatic patients.

The bladder is full but the person cannot pass urine. It needs immediate clinical assessment; catheter drainage may be required, as retention can harm bladder and kidney function.